Arrangement

Equipped with the subject matter for your argument or speech, after having determined the issue at hand, thought out appropriate supporting arguments drawn from the sources of proof, and identified commonplaces through which to present these arguments; then it is time to arrange or organize your speech appropriately into parts.

A speech has four parts:

1. An introduction or prologue
2. A narration or statement of the case
3. An argument including a refutation of opposing arguments
4. A conclusion or epilogue

Deliberative speeches may sometimes assume a different structure. A speaker might find it appropriate to add a proposition, a statement or division of his arguments, or a digression, often on the character or actions of one of the involved.

[…] That we should say something before addressing the case, then set forth the case, after that prove it by establishing our own arguments and refuting those of our opponents, then conclude our speech and so bring it to an end. […] For there are always many arguments that occur to us, many that seem likely to bring us advantage in our speech. Some of these, however, carry so little weight that they must be disregarded. Others, even if they offer some help, are often such that they contain some fault, while the value of the advantage that they seem to provide is not so great that it should be combined with some harmful point. But as to the useful and strong arguments, if nevertheless a great number of them remain, as often happens, then those among them that carry the least weight, or are rather similar to other, weightier ones, ought to be discarded, I think, and to be removed from our speech. It is at least my own practice, when I am assembling arguments for my cases, not to count so much as to weigh them.

Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Oratore

Introduction or Prologue

The prologue of the speech is a passage that should bring our audience into the proper state of mind in order to receive the rest of our argument. To accomplish this goal, the speaker should strive to secure the attention of his listeners, to make them receptive and ready to receive his arguments, and to win their goodwill.

Cicero’s suggests that the prologue should be aimed at securing the sympathy and goodwill of his listeners, while at the same time disposing them unfavorably toward his opponents.

Narration or Statement of Facts

“Facts,” of course, can be a slippery term, and the notion of imparting “spin” to a story is as old as speech itself. Each speaker attempts to state his version of the facts of the case in a way that will be most beneficial to his argument.

It should possess three qualities:

• Brevity
• Clarity
• Persuasiveness
• Plausibility

Confirmation or Proof and Refutation

Proof of one’s case, in which the orator relies chiefly on methods of rational argumentation for persuasion, generally follows the narration. On some occasions, the speaker may choose to introduce the confirmation with a partition (Latin partitio), in which he briefly outlines what his agreements are with his opponents and what is left in dispute, or more often, mentions in a methodical way what he intends to discuss in the proof.

Then support for the case must be built by demolishing your opponent’s arguments and by proving your own at the same time. For in every case, the portion of the speech that serves to establish your argumentation is, so to speak, based on just one principle. This portion does require both proof and refutation, but since you cannot refute the opponent’s points without proving your own, nor prove your own without refuting your opponent’s, it follows that these things are closely connected in terms of their nature, their usefulness, and their treatment.

Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Oratore

Every argument is refuted in one of these ways:

• If one or more of its assumptions is not granted
• If the assumptions are granted, it is denied that a conclusion can be drawn from them
• If the actual form of argument is shown to be fallacious
• If a strong argument is countered by one equally strong or stronger

Conclusion or Epilogue

The final part of a speech is the conclusion or epilogue, during which you can sum up or recapitulate previous arguments and/or stir the listeners’ emotions, either by exciting indignation against your opponent, or arousing pity or sympathy for you or your client. As a result, the epilogue is a favorite portion of a speech for employing pathos as a primary mode of persuasion.

[…] we bring people over to our point of view in three ways, either by instructing them [that is, logos] or by winning their goodwill [that is, ethos] or by stirring their emotions [that is, pathos]. Well, one of these methods we should openly display, and we must appear to aim at nothing but giving instruction, while the other two must, just like blood in the body, flow throughout the whole of the speech. For it is essential that not only the prologues but also the other parts of a speech, about which I shall presently say a few words, should have the power to seep into the minds of the audience. […] it is true that both the introduction and the end of a speech are especially appropriate places for them; nevertheless, it is often useful to digress from the proposition you are arguing in order to stir the emotions. Accordingly, after the case has been set forth in the narration, there is often room for inserting a digression aimed at stirring the emotions. Or this may well be done after our arguments have been proven or after those of our opponents have been refuted, or in both places, or in all parts of the speech, if there is enough importance and substance to the case. Actually, the cases that can best be amplified and given distinction, being weightiest and fullest, are exactly those that offer the most starting points for digressions of the kind that allow us to employ the commonplaces that drive on or deflect the audience’s emotional impulse

Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Oratore